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The Qur’an

History of the Quran

The Qur’an: Revelation and Compilation

Revelation

Muslims believe that the Qur’an was revealed to Prophet Muhammad over 23 years, beginning in 610 CE, through the angel Gabriel. These revelations occurred in various circumstances, addressing different aspects of life and spirituality.The process of revelation continued until Muhammad’s death in 632 CE. ​Wikipedia

Compilation

Initially, the Qur’an was preserved through memorization and written fragments. After Muhammad’s death, concerns arose about preserving the text accurately. Caliph Abu Bakr initiated the first compilation, assigning Zayd ibn Thabit to collect the verses. Later, Caliph Uthman standardized the text around 650 CE, producing the Uthmanic codex to unify the Muslim community’s recitation. ​WikipediaWikipedia+1Wikipedia+1

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📚 Hadith: Sayings and Actions of the Prophet

Hadiths are records of the sayings, actions, and approvals of Prophet Muhammad. They provide context and elaboration on the Qur’an’s teachings. Collected and authenticated by scholars, notable compilations include Sahih al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim. Hadiths are essential for understanding Islamic jurisprudence and ethics.​

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🧠 Tafsir: Exegesis of the Qur’an

Tafsir refers to the interpretation and commentary on the Qur’an. It aims to explain the meanings, context, and implications of the verses. Prominent tafsir works include those by scholars like Ibn Kathir and Al-Tabari. These commentaries consider linguistic, historical, and theological aspects to provide comprehensive insights. ​Wikipedia+3Kalamullah+3Wikipedia+3Wikipedia

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📘 Other Significant Texts

• Sira (Biographies of the Prophet): These are detailed accounts of Muhammad’s life, providing historical context to the revelations.​Wikipedia
• Fiqh (Islamic Jurisprudence): Derived from the Qur’an and Hadith, fiqh encompasses the understanding and application of Islamic laws.​
• Ulum al-Qur’an (Sciences of the Qur’an): This field studies the Qur’an’s history, compilation, and interpretation methodologies.​

Timeline of the Qur’an’s Development

610 CE: Commencement of Revelation

Prophet Muhammad received the first revelation from the angel Gabriel in the Cave of Hira near Mecca. This event marks the beginning of the Qur’anic revelations, which continued over approximately 23 years until Muhammad’s death in 632 CE. ​

610–632 CE: Oral Transmission and Early Documentation

During Muhammad’s lifetime, the Qur’an was primarily transmitted orally. However, portions were written down by scribes on materials like palm leaves, bones, and parchment. Notable companions, including Zayd ibn Thabit and Ubayy ibn Ka’b, played significant roles in recording these revelations. ​Wikipedia+1Wikipedia+1

632 CE: Prophet Muhammad’s Passing

With Muhammad’s death, the revelations ceased. The Qur’an existed in various written fragments and in the memories of his companions but had not yet been compiled into a single, unified text.​

633 CE: Initiation of Compilation under Caliph Abu Bakr

Following the Battle of Yamama, where many who had memorized the Qur’an perished, Caliph Abu Bakr, upon Umar ibn al-Khattab’s suggestion, commissioned Zayd ibn Thabit to collect the Qur’anic verses. This compilation aimed to preserve the text and was verified through cross-referencing written fragments and oral testimonies. ​Wikipedia+2Wikipedia+2Wikipedia+2

644–656 CE: Standardization under Caliph Uthman ibn Affan

As Islam expanded, variations in Qur’anic recitation emerged. To unify the Muslim community, Caliph Uthman formed a committee, again led by Zayd ibn Thabit, to produce a standardized version of the Qur’an in the Quraysh dialect.Multiple copies were distributed to key Islamic centers, and all other versions were ordered to be destroyed to prevent discrepancies. ​Wikipedia

661–750 CE: Umayyad Period and Script Evolution

During the Umayyad Caliphate, the Qur’an was transcribed in the Hijazi script. Efforts were made to enhance the script’s clarity, including the introduction of diacritical marks to distinguish letters and vowel indicators to guide pronunciation. ​Wikipedia

750–1258 CE: Abbasid Period and Manuscript Refinement

The Abbasid era saw further refinement of Qur’anic manuscripts. Scripts became more elaborate, and decorative elements were introduced. The use of Kufic script became prevalent, and manuscripts were often illuminated with gold and other colors to beautify the text.​

1972 CE: Discovery of the Ṣan‘ā’ Manuscript

In Yemen, a cache of ancient Qur’anic manuscripts was discovered in the Great Mosque of Ṣan‘ā’. Among these was a palimpsest containing an earlier version of the Qur’anic text beneath the standard text. Radiocarbon dating suggests that these manuscripts date back to the 7th century, providing valuable insights into the early transmission of the Qur’an. ​

Compared to the Bible

Violence

• First, the Bible is a significantly longer book than the Quran is. The Quran has about 6,300 verses. The Bible on the other hand has 31,102 verses so the Bible is about five times longer than the Quran. The result here is we are not comparing like for like.
• Secondly, the above comparison ignores the books of the Hadith. A lot of the violence in Islam is found in the books of the Hadith which are not factored into the above. For example, the command to kill apostates from Islam or the justification for killing those who insult prophet Muhammad, are in the Hadith and thousands, if not millions, of people worldwide have been or are under threat of being killed because of this.
• Third, consider the nature of the violent narratives in the Bible. You see the Bible is a collection of books each of which is written in a different genre. The violent narratives are historical narratives informing the reader that in such and such a time, such and such a thing happened. So Israel waged war on the Amalekites, the book of Judges had some weird stories at the time when “every man did what was right in his own eyes”. You know what you never get from the violent narratives in the Bible? That this is a command for the reader to carry out today! There are no Amalekites or Moabites to fight and conquer.
• The Quran on the other hand gives direct commands and instructions to adherents of Islam. It orders them to fight those who do not believe in their religion or their prophet,
  • “Fight against those who do not believe in Allāh or in the Last Day and who do not consider unlawful what Allāh and His Messenger have made unlawful and who do not adopt the religion of truth [i.e., Islām] from those who were given the Scripture — [fight] until they give the jizyah willingly while they are humbled.
  • The Jews say, “Ezra is the son of Allāh”; and the Christians say, “The Messiah is the son of Allāh.” That is their statement from their mouths; they imitate the saying of those who disbelieved before [them]. May Allāh destroy them; how are they deluded?”
  • (Surah 9:29–30)
• Also, the Quran extols violence as a virtue and as a holy act pleasing to Allah,
  • “Indeed, Allāh has purchased from the believers their lives and their properties [in exchange] for that they will have Paradise. They fight in the cause of Allāh, so they kill and are killed.” (Surah 9:111)
• Martyrdom or death for the Islamic faith, not as a result of being persecuted or oppressed, but as a result of Jihad i.e. waging war in the cause of Allah is the highest possible good. Hence the prophet of Islam says in the Hadith,
  • “Nobody who dies and finds good from Allah (in the Hereafter) would wish to come back to this world even if he were given the whole world and whatever is in it, except the martyr who, on seeing the superiority of martyrdom, would like to come back to the world and get killed again (in Allah’s Cause).” (Sahih Al-Bukhari, Book 56 Hadith 13)
  • “It was narrated from ‘Abdullah bin Qatadah that he heard Abu Qatadah narrate from the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ), that he stood up among them and said that Jihad in the cause of Allah and belief in Allah are the best of deeds. Then a man stood up and said:
  • “O Messenger of Allah, if I am killed in the cause of Allah, will Allah forgive my sins?” The Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said: “Yes, if you are killed in the cause of Allah, and you are patient and seek reward, and you are facing the enemy, not running way” (Sunan An-Nasai Book 25 Hadith 73)
• “It was narrated that Abu Hurairah said:
  • “I heard the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) say: ‘By the One in Whose hand is my soul, were it not that some men among the believers would not like to stay behind when I went out (to fight), and I could not find any mounts for them, I would not have stayed behind from any campaign that fought in the cause of Allah. By the One in Whose hand is my soul, I wish that I could be killed in the cause of Allah, then brought back to life, then killed, then be brought back to life, then killed.’” (Sunan An-Nasai Book 25 Hadith 68)
• The nature of violence in both books is very different. Bible violence is descriptive, a historical account, Quranic violence is prescriptive, a command.
• Fourth, the nature of both books is very different. The Bible reflects the evolution of an understanding of God as He reveals Himself in His interaction with men and nations. He is revealed as Elohim, then YHVH, then Shaddai, then ultimately as the climax in the person of Jesus Christ. There is an evolution in even the relationship between God and men in the Bible across various covenants which all climax in the new covenant and the epistles with final judgment being done by Jesus Himself in the book of Revelation. The violent narratives we encounter in the Bible were under a covenant which no Christian is under today, in fact Christianity never comes into the picture until the New Testament. And what is Jesus’ command? “Love your enemies and do good to them that hate you”
• The Quran on the other hand has no such concept. Islam is the last and final religion for all time, the prophet is the last and final prophet for all time, the Quran is the last and final revelation for all time and what is its command? “Fight those that do not share your belief in Allah”, “Slay and be Slain in the cause of Allah!”
• Does the Warfare & Violence in the Old Testament Differ With the Quran? - Apologetics Press
• Violence in the Bible and the Qur’an: A Christian Perspective

Stole from Talmud

“whoever saves a life, it will be as if they saved all of humanity.”
Quran verse 5:32 (link)

“Whoever destroys a soul, it is considered as if he destroyed an entire world. And whoever saves a life, it is considered as if he saved an entire world.”
Mishnah Sanhedrin 4:5; Yerushalmi Talmud 4:9, Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 37a.

Muhammad’s Whiteness

Whiteness of his legs: Sahih bukhari 4:56:767 Sahih muslim 8:3325
Whiteness of his thighs: Sahih bukhari 1:8:367
Whiteness of his shanks: Sahih muslim 4:1014
Whiteness of his arms: Sunan abu dawud 20:3200
Whiteness of his armpits: Sahih bukhari 8:78:631 Sahih bukhari 1:8:385 Sahih bukhari 5:59:612 Sunan abu dawud 3:898 Sunan abu dawud 3:1169 Whiteness of his abdomen: Sahih bukhari 9:90:342 Sahih muslim 19:4442
Whiteness of his cheek: Sahih muslim 4:1208 Sunan abu dawud 3:991 Sunan abu dawud 3:1002
Whiteness of his complexion: Sahih muslim 30:5777
General whiteness of muhammad: Sahih bukhari 1:3:63 Sahih bukhari 2:17:122 Sahih bukhari 4:56:744 Sahih muslim 30:5778

Disbelievers

”The claim”

It is forbidden to try and learn and understand from the Muslims regarding the eternal war they are ordered to wage against us, the heresy and disbelievers, through terror and in various ways, because they will always continue to lie to us on the subject. They will always continue to lie to us as a holy command from Allah in the Quran and Muhammad. For them it is a sacred commandment to lie to us as part of the jihad war that Islam is waging against us.

“The argument”

“Islam is in eternal state of war against the heresy and the disbelievers”.
Quran 9.29 begins with: “Fight those who do not believe in Allah…”
The message is also from Quran 8.39 Fight the disbelievers until only Islam will exists in the world.
Quran 9.123 begins with: “O you who believe, fight those disbelievers who are near you…”
The message is also from Hadith Bukhari 25: Fight the disbelievers until they all convert to Islam and only then will their lives and property be protected.

In fact, from the above verses and the hadith and many others, it can be known that the believers are, as commanded by Allah from the Quran and Muhammad, are in a permanent state of war against the heresy and the disbelievers 24/7/365, for about 1,400 years and forever.

And then:
“It is permissible to lie in a state of war, as a tool of war.”
Muhammad in Bukhari hadith 3029: Allah’s Messenger (ﷺ) called,: “War is deceit”.
Muhammad in Hadith Sahih, in Tirmidhi 1939: “Lying in time of war”.
The message from Quran 3.28: Permission to lie to disbelievers as a defense, when Islam is in a state of weakness. Taqiyya.
The message from Quran 16.106: ”…Whoever disbelieves in [i.e., denies] Allāh after his belief…except for one who is forced [to renounce his religion] while his heart is secure in faith…”

Quran 8.55 “Verily, The worst of moving (living) creatures before Allâh are those who disbelieve[1], - so they shall not believe.” (V.8:55) i.e. disbelieve in their Lord (Allâh), deny His Oneness, worship others besides Him, deny His Messengers, and believe not in the Divine Revelation.

Quran 98.6 “Verily, those who disbelieve (in the religion of Islâm, the Qur’ân and Prophet Muhammad صلى الله عليه وسلم) from among the people of the Scripture (Jews and Christians) and Al-Mushrikûn will abide in the Fire of Hell. They are the worst of creatures.” [4]

(V.98:6) It is obligatory to have Belief in the Messengership of the Prophet (Muhammad صلى الله عليه وسلم). Narrated Abu Hurairah رضي الله عنه: Allâh’s Messenger صلى الله عليه وسلم said: “By Him (Allâh) in Whose Hand Muhammad’s soul is, there is none from amongst the Jews and Christians (of these present nations) who hears about me and then dies without believing in the Message with which I have been sent (i.e. Islâmic Monotheism) but he will be from the dwellers of the (Hell) Fire.” (Sahih Muslim, the Book of Faith, Vol.1, Chapter No.240). See also (V.3:85) and (V.3:116).

Quran 9.28 “O you who believe (in Allâh’s Oneness and in His Messenger Muhammad صلى الله عليه وسلم)! Verily, the Mushrikûn (polytheists, pagans, idolaters, disbelievers in the Oneness of Allâh, and in the Message of Muhammad صلى الله عليه وسلم) are Najasun (impure).[1] So let them not come near Al-Masjidal-Harâm (at Makkah) after this year; and if you fear poverty, Allâh will enrich you if He wills, out of His Bounty. Surely, Allâh is All-Knowing, All-Wise.”

(V.9:28) Their impurity is spiritual and physical: spiritual, because they don’t believe in Allâh’s Oneness and in His Prophet Muhammad صلى الله عليه وسلم ; and physical, because they lack personal hygiene (filthy as regards urine, stools and blood). And the word Najas is used only for those persons who have spiritual impurity e.g. Al-Mushrikûn

Quran 9.30 “And the Jews say: ‘Uzair (Ezra) is the son of Allâh, and the Christians say: Messiah is the son of Allâh. That is their saying with their mouths, resembling the saying of those who disbelieved aforetime. Allâh’s Curse be on them, how they are deluded away from the truth!” [3]

(V.9:30) a) See the footnote of (V.2:116). b) See the footnote of (V.4:40) and the footnote (c) of (V.68:42). [4] (V.9:31) Once while Allâh’s Messenger صلى الله عليه وسلم was reciting this Verse, ‘Adi bin Hâtim said, “O Allâh’s Messenger! They do not worship them (i.e. the rabbis and monks).” Allâh’s Messenger صلى الله عليه وسلم said: “They certainly do. [They (i.e. the rabbis and monks) made lawful things as unlawful and unlawful things as lawful, and they (i.e. Jews and Christians) followed them; and by doing so, they really worshipped them].” (Narrated by Ahmad, At-Tirmidhi, and Ibn Jarîr).

Quran 9.31 “They (Jews and Christians) took their rabbis and their monks to be their lords besides Allâh (by obeying them in things which they made lawful or unlawful according to their own desires without being ordered by Allâh), and (they also took as their Lord) Messiah, son of Maryam (Mary), while they (Jews and Christians) were commanded [in the Taurât (Torah) and the Injeel (Gospel)] to worship none but One Ilâh (God - Allâh) Lâ ilâha illa Huwa (none has the right to be worshipped but He)[4]. Praise and glory be to Him (far above is He) from having the partners they associate (with Him).”

Quran 3.28 “Let not the believers take unbelievers for their friends in preference to believers. Whoever does that has no connection with Allah unless (it be) that ye but guard yourselves against them, taking (as it were) security. Allah bids you to beware of him. To Allah is the journeying.”

The Quran Commentaries for 3.28 Al Imran (The family of Imran) - آل عمران 3.28 - Ibn Al Kathir

The Prohibition of Supporting the Disbelievers.

Allah prohibited His believing servants from becoming supporters of the disbelievers, or to take them as comrades with whom they develop friendships, rather than the believers. Allah warned against such behavior when He said, (And whoever does that, will never be helped by Allah in any way) meaning, whoever commits this act that Allah has prohibited, then Allah will discard him. Similarly, Allah said, (O you who believe! Take not My enemies and your enemies as friends, showing affection towards them), until, (And whosoever of you does that, then indeed he has gone astray from the straight path.) 60:1. Allah said, (O you who believe! Take not for friends disbelievers instead of believers. Do you wish to offer Allah a manifest proof against yourselves) 4:144, and, (O you who believe! Take not the Jews and the Christians as friends, they are but friends of each other. And whoever befriends them, then surely, he is one of them.) 5:51. Allah said, after mentioning the fact that the faithful believers gave their support to the faithful believers among the Muhajirin, Ansar and Bedouins, (And those who disbelieve are allies of one another, (and) if you do not behave the same, there will be Fitnah and oppression on the earth, and a great mischief and corruption.) 8:73. Allah said next, (unless (it be) that ye but guard yourselves against them, taking (as it were) security) meaning, except those believers who in some areas or times fear for their safety from the disbelievers. In this case, such believers are allowed to show friendship to the disbelievers outwardly, but never inwardly. For instance, Al-Bukhari recorded that Abu Ad-Darda’ said, “We smile in the face of some people although our hearts curse them.” Al-Bukhari said that Al-Hasan said, “The Tuqyah is allowed until the Day of Resurrection.”Allah said, (And Allah warns you against Himself.) meaning, He warns you against His anger and the severe torment He prepared for those who give their support to His enemies, and those who have enmity with His friends, (And to Allah is the final return) meaning, the return is to Him and He will reward or punish each person according to their deeds.

Islam to dominate the World

In the seventh century, Allah from Quran and Muhammad, declared an endless world war, Jihad, a racist annihilation world war against the rest of humanity. And since then, Islam has fought against us in Jihad, 24/7/365, for about 1,400 years.
Quran 8.39: “…fight them until disbelief disappears and the whole religion is for Allah alone…(for Islam)”
Quran 9.5: “…kill the polytheists wherever you find them…”
Quran 9.29: “Fight those who do not believe in Allah…”
Sahih al-Bukhari 25: Narrated Ibn ‘Umar: ”…Allah’s Messenger (ﷺ) said: “I have been ordered (by Allah) to fight against the people until they testify that none has the right to be worshipped but Allah and that Muhammad is Allah’s Messenger…”

“Objective to Dominate the World with Islam” - Abu Baraa

From - Sahih al-Bukhari 3167: …The Prophet (ﷺ) came out and said…He said to them, “If you embrace Islam, you will be safe. You should know that the earth belongs to Allah and His Apostle…”
Quran 8.39: “And fight them until there is no more Fitnah (disbelief and polytheism, i.e. worshipping others besides Allâh) and the religion (worship) will all be for Allâh Alone [in the whole of the world]. But if they cease (worshipping others besides Allâh), then certainly, Allâh is All-Seer of what they do.” Sahih al-Bukhari 25: Narrated Ibn ‘Umar: Allah’s Messenger (ﷺ) said: “I have been ordered (by Allah) to fight against the people until they testify that none has the right to be worshipped but Allah and that Muhammad is Allah’s Messenger (ﷺ), and offer the prayers perfectly and give the obligatory charity, so if they perform that, then they save their lives and property from me except for Islamic laws and then their reckoning (accounts) will be done by Allah.”
Sahih al-Bukhari 4557 Narrated Abu Huraira: The Verse: —“You (true Muslims) are the best of peoples ever raised up for mankind.” means, the best of peoples for the people, as you bring them with chains on their necks till they embrace Islam.

You (true believers in Islamic Monotheism, and real followers of Prophet Muḥammad pbuh and his Sunna) are the best of peoples ever raised up for mankind…” (V.3:110)

Quran 8.39 “And fight them until there is no more Fitnah (disbelief and polytheism, i.e. worshipping others besides Allâh) and the religion (worship) will all be for Allâh Alone [in the whole of the world]. But if they cease (worshipping others besides Allâh), then certainly, Allâh is All-Seer of what they do.”

“Total annihilation” By: Ofer Binshtok Islam, according to Allah’s commands from the Quran and Muhammad, strives to reach a world that contains only Muslims and is ruled by a caliph through Sharia law. In about 1,400 years since Islam was founded, it has managed to conquer large parts of the earth. Islam will not stop the war of annihilation, until the world contains only Islam, constant striving for 100% Islam, until all heresy and disbelievers are eliminated. Below is an example from countries and regions where Islam is very close to 100%. Islam under Allah’s commandments from the Quran and Muhammad conducts a martial doctrine of scorched earth, total annihilation. Islam destroys every trace of any culture in the territories it conquered. Islam kills the disbelievers, destroys the archaeological physical signs of their existence. Islam kills every Muslim who leaves Islam. A fighting method that doesn’t allow repeated cultural change, a method that guarantees the perpetuation of Islam in a region that has been conquered forever. “The Sacred Action Plan - The Conquest Methodology. in short” Quran 9.14: ” Fight against them so that Allâh will punish them by your hands…” Quran 8.39: “…fight them until disbelief disappears and the whole religion is for Allah alone… (for Islam)” Quran 9.5: “…kill the polytheists wherever you find them…” Quran 9.29: “Fight those who do not believe in Allah…” Quran 9.123: “O you who believe! Fight those of the disbelievers who are close to you…” *Sahih al-Bukhari 25: Narrated Ibn ‘Umar: ”…Allah’s Messenger (ﷺ) said: “I have been ordered (by Allah) to fight against the people until they testify that none has the right to be worshipped but Allah and that Muhammad is Allah’s Messenger…” Sahih al-Bukhari 4287: Narrated Abdullah: When the Prophet (ﷺ) entered Mecca on the day of the Conquest, there were 360 idols around the Kaba. The Prophet (ﷺ) started striking them with a stick he had in his hand and was saying, “Truth has come and Falsehood will neither start nor will it reappear. Narrated Abu Huraira: Sahih al-Bukhari 3167: …The Prophet(ﷺ) came out and said…He said to them, “If you embrace Islam, you will be safe. You should know that the earth belongs to Allah and His Apostle…” Narrated Abu Huraira: Sahih al-Bukhari 4557: The Verse: —“You (true Muslims) are the best of peoples ever raised up for mankind.” means, the best of peoples for the people, as you bring them with chains on their necks till they embrace Islam. [You (true believers in Islamic Monotheism, and real followers of Prophet Muḥammad pbuh and his Sunna) are the best of peoples ever raised up for mankind…” (V.3:110)] Quran 4.89: ”…But if they turn back (from Islâm), take (hold of) them and kill them wherever you find them, and take neither Auliyâ’ (protectors or friends) nor helpers from them.” Sunan an-Nasa’i 4059 Sahih: Ibn ‘Abbas said: “The Messenger of Allah [SAW] said: ‘Whoever changes his religion, kill him”

Lying

“The rule of Abrogation, Quran 2.106” They lie to us (Quran 3.28 - Taqiyya) so that they can slaughter us easily (Quran 9.5), without us realizing that this is what is going to happen. One of their deception methods is revealed. It is halal to kill us (Bukhari 25).

A Short lesson:

Quran 2.106: “Whatever a Verse (revelation) do We abrogate or cause to be forgotten, We bring a better one or similar to it. Know you not that Allâh is able to do all things?”

“One of Islam’s tactics of deception”

The Mecca’s Quran and the Medina’s Quran and what is in between - Quran 2.106 - the rule of abrogation. By: Ofer Binshtok.

A Verse that comes Later cancels a similar Verse that comes Earlier. An early call for peace, canceled by a late call for war. The 114 surahs in the Qur’an are not arranged according to the chronological order of their revelation, but mainly according to their length, usually from longest to shortest. The first sura, which is a 7-verse sura and is from Mecca, is also an exception in this arrangement.

Muhammad had no success recruiting believers in Mecca using dawa between 610-622 AD, he recruited between 70-140 believers only.

“The Surahs - explanation”

In Mecca, 90 surahs were “revealed” to Muhammad, most of which were short. In Mecca Muhammad was a spiritual religious leader. Beginning in 610 AD, the “revelations” from Allah began to “appear” to Muhammad. Since Muhammad did not have many believers in Mecca (between 70-140), his “revelations” did not preach physical violence. On the contrary, Mecca’s surahs were conciliatory, calling for coexistence. Apart from the fact that there was verbal violence towards the infidels, he insulted them. But there was zero incitement to the use of force.

In Medina, 24 longer suras were “revealed” to Muhammad.

The immigration to the Medina.

In Medina, Muhammad also became a military and political leader.

Beginning in 622 AD, after Muhammad immigrated to Mecca and received an honorable reception by 2 Arab tribes, idolaters some of whom converted to Islam and 3 Jewish tribes who refused to convert to Islam. Muhammad also became a military and political leader. Muhammad began to build a military force through which he used violence against his opponents. Thus began the “revelations” of the surahs inciting severe violence in general and the use of murder against those who insulted him and who were not ready to convert to Islam. The surahs of the beginning of Madinah, they were between conciliators to less violence, the surahs became more and more violent, as Muhammad gained power and became stronger in the Medina, until Surah 9 which is 113 in the order of revelation and is the most violent surah in the Quran. It’s the last significant saying “of Allah” through Muhammad.

“The contradictions and their solution”

Since the early commandments, in the Meccan surahs, were essentially conciliators, due to the weakness of Islam. And since the later commandments, in the Meccan surahs on the same topics were commandments that incite violence, war, murder because Islam grew stronger until it became stronger in the whole area. This being so, contradictions arose between the commandments of Mecca and Madinah. To solve this problem, Muhammad was “revealed” to Quran verse 2.106, the verse of the abrogation, which states that a commandment that comes later in order of revelation cancels an earlier commandment, so that the contradiction is eliminated. The later cancels the earlier.

“The lying tactic born from this phenomenon”

From this phenomenon was born the Islamic deception tactic that Muslims use against the infidels, taking advantage of their lack of knowledge on the subject and presenting them with the early, conciliatory verses of Makkah, as if this is what Allah commands them from the Quran, when in fact these verses have no meaning, because they are abrogated. They lie without blinking. For example, verse 2.256, is 87 in the order of revelation, which is a verse from the early period in the Medina and states that there is no compulsion in religion. It’s canceled by many verses which came later and one of them is also verse 9.5, which is 113 in the order of revelation, which states that all infidels who are not ready to convert to Islam must be killed. Verse 8.39 also states that the unbelievers must be fought until the world contains only Islam, that is to say kill those who do not convert to Islam. (Note - Since the 7th century, this Muhammad’s Sunnah is used by Islam as one of it tactics to conquer the world. when Islam is weak it’s not violent and behaves like an underdog whit victim card and when it gets stronger, the sword appears, and it kills and destroys everything.) Below is link to table of the order of the surahs in the Qur’an and according to the order of their revelation:
Link: https://islamicstudies.info/quran/quranstructure.htm#Revealed_Order

Hadith

• Hadith is a form of Islamic oral anecdotes containing the purported words, actions, and the silent approvals of the prophet Muhammad. Each hadith is associated with a chain of narrators (a lineage of people who reportedly heard and repeated the hadith, from which the source of the hadith can apparently be traced).4 Compilations of hadith were aggregated into distinct collections by Islamic scholars (known as Muhaddiths) beginning one or two centuries after Muhammad’s death. Hadith are widely respected in mainstream Muslim thought and are central to Islamic law.
• Ḥadīth is the Arabic word for things like a report or an account (of an event).
• For many, the authority of hadith is a source for religious and moral guidance known as Sunnah, which ranks second only to that of the Quran
• the “great bulk” of the rules of Sharia are derived from hadith, rather than the Quran.
• Unlike the Quran, not all Muslims believe that all hadith accounts are divine revelation; in fact, scholars have thoroughly examined hadith to sort them into accuracy categories ever since the early period following the Prophet Muhammad’s death. Different collections of hadīth would come to differentiate the different branches of the Islamic faith.16 A minority of Muslims believe that Islamic guidance should be based on the Quran only, thus rejecting the authority of hadith; some further claim that many hadiths are fabrications (pseudepigrapha) created in the 8th and 9th centuries AD, and which are falsely attributed to Muhammad.1718 Historically, some sects of the Kharijites also rejected the hadiths, while Mu’tazilitesrejected the hadiths as the basis for Islamic law, while at the same time accepting the Sunnah and Ijma.
• Whereas the ‘Hadith’ is an oral communication that is allegedly derived from the Prophet or his teachings, the ‘Sunna’ (quite literally: mode of life, behaviour or example) signifies the prevailing customs of a particular community or people. … A ‘Sunna’ is a practice which has been passed on by a community from generation to generation en masse, whereas the hadith are reports collected by later compilers often centuries removed from the source. … A practice which is contained within the Hadith may well be regarded as Sunna, but it is not necessary that a Sunna would have a supporting hadith sanctioning it.
• The hadith have been called by American-Sunni scholar Jonathan A. C. Brown as “the backbone” of Islamic civilization.
• Some Muslim critics of hadith even go so far as to completely reject them as the basic texts of Islam and instead adhere to the movement called Quranism. Quranists argue that the Quran itself does not contain an invitation to accept hadith as a second theological source alongside the Quran. The expression “to obey God and the Messenger”, which occurs among others in 3:132 or 4:69, is understood to mean that one follows the Messenger whose task it was to convey the Quran by following the Quran alone. Muhammad is, so to speak, a mediator from God to people through the Quran alone and not through hadith, according to Quranists.119120 Both modernist Muslims and Qur’anists believe that the problems in the Islamic worldcome partly from the traditional elements of the hadith and seek to reject those teachings.121

Quranist Movement

[Quranism - Wikipedia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quranism#:~:text=Quranism%20(Arabic%3A%20القرآنية%2C%20romanized,to%20the%20hadith%20and%20sunnah.)

Origins of Quran’s Laws

The answer depends on whether the question is approached theologically or historically.

The Islamic explanation: revelation from God

Muslims do not believe Muhammad personally devised or borrowed the Qur’an’s laws. They believe God revealed the Qur’an to him through the angel Gabriel.

The Qur’an presents itself as:

• Confirming the earlier Torah and Gospel
• Correcting disputed or corrupted interpretations
• Providing a new law for Muhammad’s community
• Continuing the religion of Abraham, Moses and Jesus

Qur’an 5:43–48 discusses the Torah, the Gospel and the Qur’an together, saying that God gave different communities a “code of law and a way of life.” From this perspective, similarities between Qur’anic and biblical laws exist because they ultimately came from the same God. (Quran.com)

The historical explanation: several overlapping traditions

Historians generally understand Qur’anic law as developing within the religious and legal environment of seventh-century Arabia and the broader Late Antique Near East. They normally identify several major sources of context rather than one book or individual from whom Muhammad copied everything.

1. Existing Arabian customary law

Pre-Islamic Arabia already possessed customs governing:

• Marriage and divorce
• Inheritance and guardianship
• Commerce, loans and contracts
• Tribal retaliation and blood compensation
• Slavery
• Pilgrimage and sacred territory
• Oaths and dispute settlement

The Qur’an frequently retained an existing Arabian institution but altered its rules or moral purpose. It did not create every legal category from nothing.

For example, pilgrimage to the Kaaba existed before Islam, but the Qur’an reinterpreted it as an institution founded by Abraham and purified it of polytheistic worship. Tribal retaliation continued, but the Qur’an restricted it, encouraged proportionality and permitted forgiveness or compensation. Inheritance remained organized around kinship, but women and certain other relatives received specified shares. Scholars therefore describe early Islamic law as combining Arabian customary law with Qur’anic reforms. (Cambridge University Press)

2. Jewish and biblical law

The Qur’an contains unmistakable parallels with the Hebrew Bible and Jewish legal tradition. Examples include:

• Monotheism and opposition to idolatry
• Dietary restrictions
• Fasting
• Charity and care for the poor
• Ritual purity
• Marriage restrictions
• Retaliation for bodily injury
• Rules concerning murder, theft and testimony

The Qur’an sometimes openly acknowledges the connection. It says fasting was prescribed to Muslims “as it was prescribed to those before you,” and it repeats the biblical formula “life for life, eye for eye” when discussing the Torah.

However, Qur’anic law is not simply Jewish law translated into Arabic. It accepts some Jewish rules, modifies others and rejects certain restrictions as punishments that had been imposed specifically upon the Israelites. Modern scholarship therefore speaks of engagement with Jewish and biblical legal traditions, not straightforward duplication. (OUP Academic)

3. Christian traditions

The Qur’an also emerged in a world strongly influenced by Christianity. Christian communities existed around Arabia—in Syria, Ethiopia, Yemen, Mesopotamia and along Arabian trade routes—and some Christian groups were present within Arabia itself. (Cambridge University Press)

Christian influence is more obvious in the Qur’an’s:

• Teachings about Jesus, Mary and earlier prophets
• Emphasis on judgment, heaven and hell
• Almsgiving and care for the poor
• Fasting and prayer
• Sexual morality
• Condemnation of infanticide and certain pagan practices
• Apocalyptic language

But Christianity possessed less of a comprehensive religious legal code than Judaism. The Qur’an’s detailed family and inheritance regulations consequently cannot be explained merely as an adoption of Christian law. Some scholars argue that the Qur’an participated in a broader Jewish-Christian debate over which biblical laws should apply to non-Jews. (OUP Academic)

4. Muhammad’s decisions as ruler and judge

After Muhammad migrated from Mecca to Medina in 622, he became not only a religious preacher but also the leader, military commander and judge of a developing political community.

Many legal passages appear connected to concrete situations encountered in Medina:

• Distribution of war booty
• Treatment of prisoners
• Marriage and divorce disputes
• Inheritance after deaths in battle
• Relations with Jewish and pagan communities
• Debt and commercial transactions
• Adultery accusations
• Community discipline
• Warfare and peace agreements

Historically, this suggests that part of Qur’anic law developed through Muhammad’s responses to actual disputes and political circumstances. Within Islam, these responses were divinely revealed judgments; within historical-critical scholarship, they are studied as Muhammad’s legislation and community leadership. (Cambridge University Press)

5. The broader Near Eastern legal world

Arabia was not isolated. It bordered territories governed by the Byzantine and Sasanian empires and interacted with:

• Roman and Byzantine law
• Rabbinic Jewish law
• Syriac Christian institutions
• Persian and Sasanian practices
• Ethiopian Christianity
• Arabian merchant customs

Scholars debate how directly particular systems influenced individual Qur’anic rules. Evidence for general interaction is strong, but proving that Muhammad obtained a particular law from a specific Roman, rabbinic or Persian text is often difficult. Much religious and legal knowledge probably circulated orally through merchants, travelers, converts, storytellers and religious communities rather than through Muhammad personally reading formal law books. (OUP Academic)

The Qur’an is not the whole of Islamic law

It is important not to equate everything later called Sharia with laws directly stated in the Qur’an.

The Qur’an contains important rules concerning worship, marriage, divorce, inheritance, contracts, warfare and punishment, but it does not provide a comprehensive legal code covering every circumstance. Most classical Islamic law was developed after Muhammad through:

• The Sunna: Muhammad’s reported conduct
• Hadith: reports about his words and actions
• Ijma: scholarly consensus
• Qiyas: analogical reasoning
• Juristic interpretation and local practice

The major Islamic legal schools constructed extensive systems of jurisprudence over the following centuries. Consequently, a rule described today as “Islamic law” may come from the Qur’an, a hadith, later juristic reasoning or some combination of them. (OUP Academic)

Bottom line

From the Muslim theological perspective, Muhammad received the laws from God, and their similarities to Judaism and Christianity reflect a shared divine origin.

From the historical perspective, Qur’anic law arose from a mixture of:

1. Pre-Islamic Arabian customs
2. Jewish and biblical legal traditions
3. Christian moral and religious ideas
4. Muhammad’s judgments as leader of Medina
5. The wider legal culture of the Late Antique Near East

The best historical description is not that Muhammad copied one source. It is that the Qur’an adopted, rejected, reinterpreted and reformed institutions already circulating in its Arabian and Abrahamic environment, while also establishing distinctive rules for the new Muslim community.

Unscientific Claims

How to Evaluate These Verses

The Qur’an uses poetic, observational, theological, and occasionally cosmological language. A passage is not automatically a “scientific error” merely because it describes a miracle or uses metaphor. The strongest alleged conflicts are passages whose most straightforward literal reading makes a claim about anatomy, embryology, geology, or astronomy that appears inconsistent with established science.

1. Reproductive Fluid From Between the Backbone and Ribs

Qur’an 86:6–7 describes humans as created from a spurting fluid emerging from “between the backbone and the ribs.” Quran.com

Why critics consider it problematic

Sperm are produced in the testes, while most seminal fluid comes from the seminal vesicles and prostate, all located in the pelvic reproductive system—not anatomically between the ribs and backbone. Merck Manuals

Muslim responses

Common explanations include:

• The passage refers broadly to the region of the torso rather than the precise origin of semen.
• “Backbone and ribs” refer respectively to the man and woman.
• It refers to the embryological origin of the reproductive organs, which initially develop higher in the abdomen.

Assessment

One of the strongest apparent scientific difficulties. The proposed harmonizations are possible interpretive constructions, but none is the obvious anatomical reading of the verse.

2. Bones Formed and Then Covered With Flesh

Qur’an 23:12–14 presents a sequence involving a drop, an ʿalaqah, a lump, bones, and then the clothing of those bones with flesh. Quran.com

Why critics consider it problematic

Human muscles and the skeletal framework develop through overlapping processes. Bone and skeletal muscle development are closely coordinated rather than completed as separate consecutive stages in which bare bones form first and are subsequently covered with flesh. Ossification itself does not begin until approximately weeks six to seven. PMC

The traditional interpretation was often explicitly sequential: Ibn Kathir understood the body as first being given bones and then being covered and strengthened with flesh. Quran.com

Muslim responses

• ʿAlaqah can mean “something clinging,” not necessarily a literal blood clot.
• “Bones” may refer to an early cartilage framework rather than mature ossified bone.
• The Arabic sequence may describe dominant stages without asserting that one process completely ends before the next begins.

Assessment

A substantial problem for a rigidly literal, modern-scientific interpretation. It is less decisive when read as a general visual description of embryonic development rather than a technical chronology.

3. Mountains Preventing the Earth From Shaking

Relevant verses include:

• Qur’an 16:15: mountains placed so the earth does not shake with people.
• Qur’an 21:31: firm mountains placed in the earth lest it sway.
• Qur’an 78:6–7: the earth as a bed and mountains as pegs. Quran.com

Why critics consider it problematic

Mountains do not prevent earthquakes. Many mountain ranges form precisely where tectonic plates collide, separate, or slide past one another. More than 80% of earthquakes and volcanoes occur near tectonic-plate boundaries, and the same tectonic forces can produce mountain ranges. USGS

Muslim responses

• Mountains have deep structural “roots,” making the “peg” image appropriate.
• The verses refer to long-term crustal stability rather than the prevention of every earthquake.
• The wording is theological and phenomenological, describing mountains as stable landmarks.

Assessment

Moderately strong if interpreted as saying mountains physically prevent seismic movement. The “mountains as pegs” metaphor itself is not necessarily erroneous; the more difficult wording is that mountains stop the earth from shaking.

4. Earth Created Before the Heavens

Qur’an 2:29 and 41:9–12 appear to describe the earth and its provisions being prepared before God turns toward the heaven while it is “smoke.” Quran.com

Modern astronomy holds that the Sun formed from the solar nebula and that the planets, including Earth, developed from the material remaining in the disk around the young Sun. Earth therefore did not precede the Sun or the wider stellar cosmos. NASA Science

Complication within the Qur’an

Qur’an 79:27–33 describes the sky being built and then the earth being spread, watered, and furnished with mountains. Quran.com

Muslim interpreters reconcile these passages by distinguishing:

1. The initial creation of earthly matter.
2. The formation of the heavens.
3. The later spreading and furnishing of Earth.

Assessment

A moderate conflict under a strictly chronological reading. The terminology is sufficiently broad that a harmonized sequence can be constructed, although it does not closely resemble a modern account of solar-system formation.

The alleged eight-day contradiction

Critics sometimes add the numbers in 41:9–12 as two days for Earth, four for provisions, and two for heaven, producing eight days despite other verses saying six. The standard reading treats the four days as inclusive of the original two, giving four days for Earth and two for heaven.

This is therefore a relatively weak criticism compared with the chronological issue.

5. The Sun Setting in a Muddy or Murky Spring

Qur’an 18:86 says that Dhul-Qarnayn reached the sun’s setting place and found it setting in a murky spring. Many modern translations add that it “appeared to him” to be setting there. Quran.com

Why critics consider it problematic

Taken as a physical description, the Sun obviously does not descend into a terrestrial spring. The Earth rotates, producing the visual appearance of sunset.

Muslim responses

The ordinary response is phenomenological: someone standing on a western shoreline may say that the Sun “sets in the ocean” without believing that it physically enters the water. The verse describes what Dhul-Qarnayn saw, not the Sun’s actual astronomical location.

Assessment

Not a particularly strong scientific objection unless one insists on the most literal possible reading. The wording permits an observer-relative description, although “appeared to him” is partly an interpretive clarification supplied by modern translators.

6. Stars or Meteors Used to Attack Eavesdropping Devils

Relevant passages include:

• Qur’an 37:6–10: stars decorate the lowest heaven while a piercing flare pursues devils who attempt to hear the heavenly assembly.
• Qur’an 67:5: heavenly lamps are associated with missiles used against devils.
• Qur’an 72:8–9: jinn encounter heavenly guards and flares when attempting to eavesdrop. Quran.com

Why critics consider it unrealistic

Meteors are pieces of space rock entering and heating up in an atmosphere; they are not stars falling or being fired through the sky. NASA Space Place

There is also no scientific evidence that meteors pursue spiritual beings or prevent them from overhearing conversations among angels.

Muslim responses

• The Qur’an distinguishes the stars decorating the sky from the shihāb or fiery flare that pursues the devils.
• The physical meteor may be the visible manifestation of an otherwise supernatural event.
• Jinn and angels belong to an unseen realm and consequently cannot be evaluated solely through natural science.

Assessment

Scientifically unsupported but not a straightforward scientific error, because the central claim is supernatural. Science can explain meteors naturally, but it cannot experimentally test invisible jinn attempting to overhear angels.

7. The Sky as a Roof That Could Fall

Qur’an 21:32 calls the sky a protected roof or canopy, while 22:65 says God keeps the sky from falling upon the earth except by his permission. Quranic Arabic Corpus

Why critics consider it problematic

A literal solid firmament suspended above Earth is inconsistent with modern astronomy. Space is not a physical ceiling that could fall as a single structure.

Muslim responses

• “Roof” is metaphorical, referring to the atmosphere and celestial environment above Earth.
• Earth’s atmosphere does provide protection from radiation and many smaller extraterrestrial objects.
• “Falling” can refer to destructive celestial material or the collapse of the normal cosmic order at the end of the world.

Assessment

Interpretation-dependent. It resembles ancient firmament imagery if read literally, but “roof” and “falling sky” are common poetic expressions and need not describe a solid dome.

8. Seven Heavens and Seven Earths

Qur’an 65:12 says God created seven heavens and “of the earth the like of them,” traditionally understood by many commentators as seven earths. Quran.com

Why critics consider it problematic

Modern geology and astronomy have not identified seven physical Earths or seven objectively distinct heavenly layers corresponding to this description.

Muslim responses

The seven heavens may represent:

• Metaphysical realms rather than observable space.
• Cosmic regions inaccessible to present science.
• Layers or levels of creation rather than seven atmospheric layers.
• A symbolic use of seven indicating completeness or multiplicity.

Assessment

No established scientific confirmation, but difficult to falsify because the terms “heavens” and “earths” are not defined scientifically.

9. Miracles That Appear Naturally Impossible

These include:

• The splitting of the Moon — 54:1
• Adam’s direct creation from clay
• Jinn and angels
• Bodily resurrection
• People remaining alive in a cave for centuries — 18:9–26
• Solomon communicating with animals and commanding jinn
• The sea being divided for Moses

Under methodological naturalism, these events are either impossible under ordinary natural laws or unsupported by reproducible evidence. But they are miracle claims, not failed scientific explanations. Christianity, Judaism, Hinduism, and other religions similarly contain events that presuppose divine intervention.

Rejecting them depends primarily on a philosophical premise:

Miracles cannot occur, or extraordinary claims require evidence beyond the testimony supplied by scripture.

Science alone cannot prove that an omnipotent deity could not suspend normal natural processes.

The Strongest and Weakest Criticisms

Strongest apparent conflicts

1. Qur’an 86:6–7 — reproductive fluid between backbone and ribs
2. Qur’an 23:14 — bones followed by flesh
3. Qur’an 16:15 and 21:31 — mountains preventing the earth from shaking
4. Qur’an 2:29 and 41:9–12 — earth apparently preceding the heavens

These involve relatively concrete statements that can be compared with anatomy, embryology, geology, and astronomy.

More interpretation-dependent

1. Qur’an 18:86 — Sun setting in a muddy spring
2. Qur’an 21:32 and 22:65 — sky as a roof capable of falling
3. Qur’an 65:12 — seven heavens and seven earths

These can reasonably be understood as observer-relative, metaphorical, or metaphysical.

Supernatural rather than scientific

1. Meteors pursuing devils
2. The Moon splitting
3. Jinn, angels, resurrection and miraculous events

These are scientifically unsupported, but they are not necessarily internal scientific mistakes because they explicitly posit supernatural causes.

The most defensible critical position is therefore not that every Qur’anic reference to nature is obviously false. It is that several passages reflect the ordinary anatomical and cosmological conceptions available in late antiquity, and that making them agree precisely with modern science often requires interpretations more technical than the text itself appears to provide.

Misc