Alienation Consequentialism and the Demands of Morality - Peter Railton

Filed with Ethics & Metaethics (MOC) · Related: 60.9 Philosophy · 60.10 Argumentation

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In this article, Peter Railton explores the tension between the demands of moral theories and the personal attachments that give life meaning. He argues that a specific form of moral theory—objective consequentialism—can resolve the problem of alienation by allowing individuals to maintain deep, personal commitments while still leading morally defensible lives.

The Problem: Morality as a Source of Alienation

Railton identifies a significant concern: living up to moral demands can cause an “estrangement” from one’s feelings, commitments, and loved ones.

• The Impersonal Point of View: Traditional moralities often require an “abstract and universalizing point of view” that mediates how we respond to others.
• The Examples of John and Helen: Railton uses two characters to illustrate this:
  • John is a “model husband” who treats his wife well because he calculates that doing so produces the best consequences.
  • Helen is a loyal friend who stands by “Lisa” out of a deontological sense of duty and reciprocity.
• The Loss: Even though their actions are “right,” they appear alienated because their affection is filtered through a “distant, objective point of view” rather than a direct, personal one.

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The Distinction: Subjective vs. Objective Theories

To solve this, Railton draws a parallel to the “paradox of hedonism“—the idea that directly pursuing happiness can often prevent one from achieving it. He distinguishes between two ways of applying a theory:

Railton argues that a “sophisticated consequentialist” is someone who is committed to the objective goal of leading a good life but realizes that constantly calculating the “overall good” is often self-defeating.

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The Solution: The “Sophisticated” Moral Agent

A sophisticated agent, like the character Juan, maintains a standing commitment to morality but acts directly out of love and friendship.

• Direct Concern: Juan loves his wife “Linda” directly; he does not need to consult a moral calculus before helping her.
• Counterfactual Condition: While he acts spontaneously, Juan’s life meets a “counterfactual condition”—he would seek to change his life if he found that his commitments were not morally defensible.
• Sturdy Characters: Objective act-consequentialism can endorse “sturdy” character traits and deep loyalties because people with such traits are often more effective at producing long-term human well-being than those who are constantly recalculating their duties.

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Reconceptualizing the Self and Morality

Railton concludes by challenging the idea that morality is an “external set of demands”.

• The Situated Individual: He rejects the “presocial, rational, abstract individual” as a starting point. Instead, he views humans as “situated in society,” where identities are built through social, cultural, and intimate ties.
• Mutual Significance: A sense of “meaningfulness” in life depends on our connection to others. Denying the significance of others beyond the self can actually undercut the basis of significance for the self.
• Integration: Morality is not just about sacrifice; it is about finding a “highly desirable” life that is consistent with being moral.
  In Section VII, Railton explains that the distinction between subjective and objective perspectives applies to both act- and rule-based theories, creating a matrix of possible moral frameworks. While he uses this to defend Objective Act-Consequentialism, he highlights significant flaws in rule-consequentialism.

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The Consequentialist Matrix

Railton clarifies that the subjective/objective distinction is a separate “cut” from the act/rule distinction.

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Why Railton Rejects Rule-Consequentialism

Although Railton finds the objective form of rule-consequentialism more plausible than the subjective one, he ultimately deems the entire rule-based approach untenable.

• The Problem of Unaccepted Rules: Rule-consequentialism might demand that you follow a “best” rule even when that rule is not generally accepted by society.
• Devastating Outcomes: If a rule is followed in a world where others do not adhere to it, the results can be “devastatingly bad”.
• Rigidity: Railton compares the rigid following of rules to the phrase “Fiat justitia, ruat coelum!” (Let justice be done, though the heavens fall), arguing that such a stance is implausible for a theory supposedly concerned with human well-being.

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The Advantage of Objective Act-Consequentialism

Railton argues that Objective Act-Consequentialism is superior because it captures the benefits of rule-consequentialism—such as the importance of “sturdy” character traits—without their logical pitfalls.

• Endorsing Traits, Not Rigid Rules: An objective act-consequentialist can encourage people to develop deep commitments and “sturdy” characters because these traits generally produce the best results over a lifetime.
• Flexibility in Failure: Unlike rule-consequentialism, which might redefine a “wrong” act as “right” if it follows a good rule, Railton’s theory remains honest.
• The “Wrong” Act from a “Right” Trait: He admits that a good character trait (like deep love for a spouse) might lead someone to perform a “wrong” act (like spending money on a visit instead of charity).
• Optimal Dispositions: However, he maintains that it is still “right” for an agent to possess that trait if _any other_available character would have resulted in even worse outcomes over the long run.

  “Objective consequentialism… has valuable flexibility in permitting us to take consequences into account in assessing the appropriateness of certain modes of decision making, thereby avoiding any sort of self-defeating decision procedure worship.”
  Objective Act-Consequentialism is a moral framework that focuses on the actual results of your actions rather than the specific thoughts or rules you follow in the moment.
  To understand it in simple terms, it helps to distinguish between the goal of your life and the method you use to live it.

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1. The Core Principle: Results Matter Most

Under this view, an action is “right” if it actually brings about the best possible outcome for the world compared to any other choice you could have made.

• Actual Outcomes: It doesn’t matter if you intended to do good; what matters is whether good was actually achieved.
• Flexibility: It doesn’t force you to follow a rigid “moral GPS” (like a rulebook) if that GPS would actually lead you into a ditch.

2. The “Sophisticated” Agent

Railton introduces the sophisticated consequentialist to show how this works in real life. This person is committed to doing the most good but realizes that constantly “doing the math” on every decision is often counterproductive.

• Acting on Impulse: Sometimes, the best way to be a good person is to act directly out of love, habit, or loyalty without stopping to calculate the “utility” of your friends or family.
• The Counterfactual Test: Even though you act spontaneously, you keep a “background check” running. If you realized your lifestyle or a specific commitment was actually causing significant harm to the world, you would be willing to change it.

3. Comparison of Perspectives

The theory separates your criterion of rightness (the standard for a “right” act) from your decision procedure (how you think in the moment).

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4. Why This Helps Avoid Alienation

Railton argues that this version of morality is “non-alienated” because it doesn’t require you to view your wife, children, or friends as mere “tools” for producing happiness.

• Direct Love: You can love your family for their own sake.
• Moral Defense: You simply ensure that your deep love for them is part of a life that, overall, makes the world a better place.
• Human Nature: It acknowledges that we are “situated” individuals with social and personal needs, not abstract “calculating machines”.
  Railton uses the “Paradox of Hedonism” as a strategic blueprint to explain how a moral theory can be true even if you shouldn’t constantly think about it.

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1. What is the Paradox?

The paradox is not a logical error, but a pragmatic one.

• The Claim: If your only goal in life is to be as happy as possible (Subjective Hedonism), you will likely fail to achieve maximum happiness.
• The Reason: Many of the most intense sources of happiness—such as deep friendships, love, or devotion to a cause—require you to care about the person or the cause for its own sake, not just as a tool for your own pleasure.
• The Result: The person who doggedly pursues happiness directly often ends up less happy than the person who forgets about themselves and focuses on others.

2. The Solution: The “Sophisticated Hedonist”

Railton introduces the Sophisticated Hedonist to show a way out of this trap.

• Objective Goal: They still want to lead the happiest life available to them (Objective Hedonism).
• Subjective Method: They realize that to achieve that goal, they must eschew the hedonistic point of view in their daily lives.
• Genuine Commitments: They develop real, unmediated care for friends and projects. They don’t just pretend to care; they actually care.

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3. The “Counterfactual Condition”

A common objection is: “If you are still a hedonist deep down, isn’t your love for your friend fake?” Railton answers this with a counterfactual test:

• A sophisticated hedonist loves their friend directly and acts for the friend’s sake.
• However, they maintain a background check: if the relationship were to become consistently destructive or completely inconsistent with their overall well-being, they would eventually reconsider or end it.
• The Tennis Analogy: A competitive player is told to “stop thinking about winning and focus on the game” to play better. They focus on the ball for its own sake, but they only do this because they ultimately want to win.

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4. Application to Morality

Railton applies this exact logic to Objective Act-Consequentialism.

By using this metaphor, Railton argues that just as the happiest people aren’t always thinking about happiness, the most moral people aren’t always thinking about morality. They are “situated” in real relationships that, in the long run, are the very things that make the world better