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David Hume

Covered in the vault’s survey histories

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Evans — A History of Western Philosophy

Life

  • Early Life (1711–1734): Born in Edinburgh; entered university at 12; studied broadly but rejected scholastic philosophy.
  • France & Treatise (1734–1740): Lived in France; wrote A Treatise of Human Nature (his major early work), which was largely ignored at publication.
  • Essays & Enquiries (1740s–1750s): Recast his ideas in more accessible form (Enquiries); became respected for essays on politics, economics, and morality.
  • Historian & Public Figure (1754–1762): Wrote a six-volume History of England, gaining wide fame.
  • Later Years (1760s–1776): Diplomatic posts in Paris and London; friendships with Adam Smith and Jean-Jacques Rousseau; retired to Edinburgh; died 1776.

Impact on Philosophy

Concepts

  • Empiricism
    • Definition: All ideas come from impressions (sensory experiences); the mind cannot generate ideas without experiential input.
    • Example: The idea of “golden mountain” comes from combining two impressions—“gold” and “mountain.”
  • Problem of Induction
    • Definition: Reasoning from past experience to predict the future (induction) cannot be rationally justified. We assume the future will resemble the past, but this assumption itself lacks proof.
    • Example: We expect the sun to rise tomorrow because it always has, but logically, this is not guaranteed.
  • Causation as Habit
    • Definition: We never directly perceive “necessary connection”; we only observe constant conjunction (A followed by B) and, through habit, expect the sequence to continue.
    • Example: Striking a match is followed by flame, but we do not perceive a necessary link—only repetition.
  • Bundle Theory of the Self
    • Definition: The self is not a permanent substance but a “bundle” of perceptions linked by memory and imagination.
    • Example: When you introspect, you find thoughts, feelings, and sensations—but not a fixed “self” beyond them.
  • Moral Sentimentalism
    • Definition: Moral judgments arise from sentiments (feelings of approval or disapproval), not reason alone.
    • Example: We call generosity “virtuous” not because reason dictates it, but because we feel approval toward generous acts.
  • Critique of Religion
    • Definition: Challenged rational proofs of God’s existence, especially the design argument. Claimed miracles are never credible because testimony is always less reliable than the uniformity of natural law.
    • Example: Reports of a miracle (e.g., someone rising from the dead) are always less probable than the likelihood of error or deception in the testimony.
    • Bayesian reconstruction and qualifications: Extraordinary Claims Require Extraordinary Evidence — why the same testimony can rationally produce different posterior confidence, and where Hume’s maxim remains contested.
  1. Empiricism: Hume strongly advocated for empiricism, the belief that knowledge comes primarily from sensory experience. He argued that all ideas are ultimately derived from our sensory experiences and that we cannot think of anything which we have not first experienced through the senses.
  2. Skepticism about Causal Relationships: Hume questioned the nature of causation, arguing that we can never perceive necessary connections in the world, only constant conjunctions. That is, we observe that one event (like a cue ball hitting another) regularly follows another (the second ball moving), but we cannot directly perceive a causal connection.
  3. The Problem of Induction: Hume famously highlighted the problem of induction. He argued that inductive reasoning (making generalizations based on specific observations) lacks a rational basis. Just because the sun has risen every day in our experience, it does not logically follow that it will rise tomorrow.
  4. The Bundle Theory of the Self: Hume denied the existence of a permanent “self” that continues over time. He proposed the bundle theory, which suggests that what we call the “self” is just a bundle of different perceptions and experiences, with no fixed core.
  5. Moral Philosophy: Hume was also a moral philosopher who argued that reason alone cannot motivate moral action; rather, it is our emotions or “sentiments” that drive moral decisions. He believed that moral distinctions are not derived from reason but from moral sentiment.
  6. Religious Skepticism: Hume was skeptical about religion and particularly critical of the design argument for the existence of God. He argued that the complexity and imperfection of the world do not necessarily point to a designer.
  7. Theory of Knowledge: Hume distinguished between ‘relations of ideas’ (such as in mathematics and logic, which are tautological and knowable a priori) and ‘matters of fact’ (which are contingent and known through experience).
  8. Influence on the Enlightenment and Modern Thought: Hume’s ideas were highly influential during the Enlightenment and continue to impact modern philosophy, particularly in the fields of epistemology, ethics, and the philosophy of religion.
  • Attacked for one footnote
    • Black people are inferior to whites
    • Was a racist
    • Made a robust theory on ending the slave trade
  • Separation state and belief of superstition
    • Enemy of superstition
      • Anything to have to do with religion
    • Atheist
  • Arguably the wisest and most talented philosopher in the English language ever
  • Abandoned philosophies in late 20s
  • The Treaties of Human Nature
    • Failure at the time
    • Took until the 19th and 20th century for people to understand
  • Wanted to take ideas out into the broader world—linking the language of learning and language of conversation
    • Where the world of intellect meets the world of conversation.
  • Basic Idea: Society could be made up virtuous people: Empathy, sympathy, humanity—regarded them as modern virtues
  • Admired the ancient world
  • Believed people had an intuitive capacity to share in the suffering and the joys of other people—viable glue for human society
  • Rejected from teaching for being an atheist
  • Was not against changing his views in light of evidence

Criticisms of Hume

  • Problem of Induction Left Unresolved
    • Hume convincingly showed the logical weakness of induction but offered no satisfying solution.
    • Critique: Immanuel Kant argued Hume underestimated the role of the mind’s innate structures, which make induction possible.
  • Excessive Skepticism
    • Critics say Hume’s skepticism about causality and the self can lead to radical doubt that undermines practical reasoning.
    • Example: Thomas Reid (Scottish Common-Sense philosopher) argued that denying causation or the self violates basic common sense.
  • Moral Sentimentalism Questioned
    • Hume placed morality in feelings of approval/disapproval, but critics argue this reduces ethics to subjective sentiment.
    • Critique: Rationalist thinkers (e.g., Kant) insisted reason must ground moral obligation, not mere feeling.
  • Religion Critiques Contested
    • Hume’s argument against miracles has been accused of assuming a naturalistic bias from the outset.
    • Critique: Later philosophers of religion argue that he dismisses testimonial evidence too easily.
  • Bundle Theory of the Self
    • Critics point out that memory and continuity presuppose some form of stable self, which Hume’s “bundle” theory doesn’t fully explain.

References

  • Hume, David. A Treatise of Human Nature (1739–1740).
  • Hume, David. An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding (1748).
  • Hume, David. An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals (1751).
  • Hume, David. Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion (1779, posthumous).
  • Norton, David Fate. David Hume: Common-Sense Moralist, Sceptical Metaphysician (1982).